Strategies, Problems, and Management

Instructional Strategies

Helping students become more independent with positioning equipment is not just about physical support—it’s also about building communication, self-awareness, and functional skills. Below are practical strategies educators can use to make the process meaningful and empowering.

• Use receptive communication cues (e.g., handing them a material associated with a piece of equipment) to help them prepare for an upcoming position change.

• Understand and indicate when it is time to get into or out of positioning equipment, empowering them to direct their own care.

• Actively participate by relaxing muscles, moving limbs, or removing straps to facilitate smoother transitions into and out of equipment.

• Learn to signal any pain or discomfort while positioned so adjustments can be made immediately.
• Communicate where materials should be placed to access them, and ask for help when something is out of reach. Teachers can encourage this by intentionally placing items out of range to create teaching opportunities.

By combining communication skills, self-advocacy, and physical participation, students not only learn to use positioning equipment but also gain greater independence in their daily routines. 

Handling and Positioning Problems and Emergencies

Even with the best plans, problems can arise. Being prepared to handle emergencies is critical. This includes recognizing signs of pain or discomfort and understanding the severe risks and protocols associated with dropping a child.

Pain or Discomfort:
Handling should never be forced or painful. School personnel must be vigilant for signs of distress. Students should be taught to communicate discomfort, which should be addressed immediately.

Dropping a Child:
Proper training in safe transferring and handling techniques is the best prevention. If a fall occurs, staff must know how to respond swiftly and appropriately.

Management Issues for Handling and Positioning

Effective management ensures that positioning strategies are implemented consistently and safely across the student's day.

• Individualized Health Plan (IHP) and IEP: A comprehensive IHP should detail specific handling techniques, positioning equipment, duration of use, and protocols for emergencies. The Individualized Education Program (IEP) must include objectives related to positioning, which can focus on independent performance, assisting with the task, or directing others how to do it. Objectives can also address material positioning, teaching the student to communicate how their learning tools should be arranged for optimal access.

  
  
  
  

• Tracking Implementation: Consistency is key. The student’s daily schedule should explicitly state which positioning equipment is to be used during each activity. For example, reading time might be the designated period for prone positioning over a wedge. Data sheets are essential tools for tracking this implementation, documenting the type of equipment used, the duration, and the student's progress on related IEP goals (e.g., assisting with transfer, indicating when time is up).

 Assistive and Instructional Strategies for Communication

Accessing Communication Boards and Devices

The foundation for successful AAC use is ensuring the student can physically access their communication board or device. This begins with proper positioning, often requiring tools like slant boards, wheelchair trays, or adjustable desks to place the system within the student’s visual and physical reach.

 

For students with motor impairments, pointing devices like head pointers, mouth sticks, or light beams may be necessary. An occupational therapist is a key partner in determining the right positioning and access tools. The chosen access method—whether direct select, scanning, or encoding—depends entirely on the student's unique physical, sensory, and cognitive abilities.

Direct Select

Direct select is the most straightforward and fastest access method. It involves the user directly touching or pointing to the symbol they wish to communicate. This method is preferred for students with the necessary motor skills. Adaptations like head pointers, trackballs, or keyboards can make direct selection possible for those who cannot use a finger. This method works for both electronic and non-electronic devices. A key consideration is page-turning; solutions like page turners, tabs, or electronic devices that change screens automatically are essential for students who cannot turn pages independently.

Scanning

Scanning is used when students cannot point directly. A switch highlights choices one at a time, and the student activates it to select. Different scanning styles and patterns allow flexibility based on ability.
Scanning can also be done manually by a communication partner who points to symbols until the user signals a selection.

There are several scanning techniques:

• Automatic Scanning: Choices are highlighted automatically; the user activates a switch to select.

• Inverse Scanning: The user holds a switch down to move the highlight and releases to select.

• Step Scanning: The user activates a switch to move the highlight one step at a time.

• Directed Scanning: The user uses multiple switches or a joystick to move a highlight up, down, left, or right.
  

  
  

  
  

  Encoding

  Encoding allows students to communicate through codes rather than direct selections. Systems like Morse code or abbreviation expansion reduce physical effort while increasing speed. This efficient system reduces the number of motor actions needed to communicate. 

  
  

  Formal systems include:

• Morse Code: Using dots and dashes (via a switch) to represent letters.
• Abbreviation Expansion: Typing a short code (e.g., "EMD") to produce a full phrase ("I want to eat at McDonald's").

• Minspeak: Selecting a sequence of icons to generate words and sentences.

Encoding can also be used with low-tech eye-gaze boards, where a partner decodes a message based on the user's eye movements between letters and numbers.

Vocabulary Selection

Selecting the right vocabulary is a personalized and dynamic process critical for students with physical and health needs. It should be tailored to the individual to express needs and direct their own care. An effective eight-step process involves:

1. Brainstorming vocabulary with the student and team.

2. Listing all possible physical/health concerns and communicative functions (demands, questions, requests).

3. Prioritizing vocabulary based on health importance.

4. Selecting messages feasible for the student to learn.

5. Identifying future vocabulary targets.

6. Choosing appropriate symbols, signs, or phrases (using peer input for age-appropriateness).

7. Arranging vocabulary for quick and easy access, especially for urgent messages.

8. Continuously evaluating and updating the vocabulary as health needs change.

   
   

   Vocabulary to Express Health and Physical Needs

   
   

   This vocabulary falls into two categories: general and specialized. General messages include words like "hurt," "sick," "headache," or using a body diagram to point to pain. Specialized vocabulary is specific to the student's procedures. 

    

   For example:

   Specific general vocabulary including "headache," "stomach ache," "nausea," "dizzy," and "tired."

   Indicate what the student wants done, such as "Call parent," "Need medication," "See nurse:' "Go home" or "Lie down."

   Vocabulary for Performing Health Care Procedures

   When students cannot physically perform procedures, they can still direct caregivers using AAC. This gives them independence and control. Vocabulary should cover each step of a procedure, as well as corrections if something goes wrong. These words or symbols can be placed on special pages of a device, ensuring the student always has access when needed.

   For example:

   It could include such phrases as "Stop, you are doing it wrong," "The food is going in too quickly," or "The barrier for the colostomy is cut too large." 

   
   

   Instructional Strategies for AAC

   Teaching AAC use requires systematic, integrated instruction. Key strategies include:

   • Integration: Embedding practice into natural daily activities.

   • Consistent Access: Ensuring the student always has their device and communication opportunities are planned.

   • Reinforcement: Responding to all communication attempts consistently and predictably.

   • Prompting: Using prompts (e.g., least-to-most, time delay) to teach symbol use, followed by immediate reinforcement.

   • Modeling: Communication partners using the student's device to talk to them demonstrates its purpose and use.

   • Partner Training: It is critical to train all communication partners (school staff, etc.) to understand and respond to the student's system effectively.

     
     

     
     

     
     

 Instructional Strategies

1. Antecedent Prompts

Antecedent prompts are cues or modifications teachers use to help students respond correctly when natural cues are not enough. These prompts should be subtle, temporary, and faded over time to avoid dependency. 

Effective antecedent prompting is characterized by the following guidelines：

• Prompts should focus student attention on the natural cue

• Prompts should be as weak as possible.

• Prompts should be faded as rapidly as possible.

• Unplanned prompts should be avoided.

A number of types of antecedent prompts are available:

Expanded Feature Prompts – adding extra details (e.g., tracing dotted letters for writing).

Relevant Feature Prompts – highlighting important parts (e.g., color-coding a sweater tag to show the back).

Proximity Prompts – placing the correct item closer to the student (e.g., fork in front, spoon farther away).

Associative Prompts – pairing abstract with concrete (e.g., word fork with a picture).

Modeling – teacher demonstrates behavior first.

Match-to-Sample – student imitates a provided sample item.

Self-Operated Picture or Auditory Prompts – step-by-step visual charts or recorded cues.

2. Learning strategies

Learning strategies emphasize how students learn, rather than what they learn. They are especially helpful for students with mild or no cognitive impairment. Strategies include: describing and modeling the process, practicing, and rehearsing. Mnemonics, music, rhymes, and mental imagery are often used to improve memory and comprehension.

Many of them involve teaching the student a mnemonic in which each letter stands for a particular part of the strategy. For example, a general strategy for each physical and health management learning task is teaching the mnemonic "You need to have ESP" (E, know the equipment; S, know the steps; P know the problems and what to do).

3. Response Prompts

To teach and shape a behavior that is either absent from the student's repertoire or incompletely performed, instruction involves providing guidance and assistance in the actual performance of the behavior, which takes the form of response prompts. These prompts are used to help the student initiate a motor response, provide guided practice, and inhibit the student from practicing errors. Furthermore, they can reinforce correct performance to increase its future probability, shape an approximation of the desired response, or correct an incorrect one.

Full physical prompt involves complete hand-over-hand assistance to guide the entire motor behavior, minimizing errors. 

Partial physical prompt offers limited physical assistance to initiate or direct a movement, which is faded as the student begins the response.

Model prompt occurs when the teacher demonstrates the behavior for the student to imitate coactively. 

Gesture prompt uses nonverbal signals, like pointing or raising hands, to indicate the correct behavior.

Verbal prompt provides additional verbal assistance beyond the initial instruction, which can be a direct cue, a question, encouragement, or a rule.

4. Demonstration-Guided Practice-Independent Practice Model

This three-step model is widely used with students who have mild to no cognitive impairments:

1. Demonstration – teacher explains and models the skill (sometimes using equipment or models).

2. Guided Practice – student practices with teacher’s support, corrections, and feedback.

3. Independent Practice – student performs independently with feedback as needed.

This method ensures mastery through scaffolding, gradually moving responsibility to the student while maintaining safety and accuracy.

 The Three-Step Process

1. Ecological Inventory

An ecological inventory is a top-down method for identifying the functional and specialized skills a student needs to participate in home, school, and community life. 

Instead of isolating what the student cannot do, it focuses on the environments where the student must or wishes to participate and then defines the skills required for successful engagement. 

This process spans four domains: personal and domestic domain, community domain, leisure domain, and vocational domain.

Follows a five-step sequence: identifying environments, sub-environments, priority activities, required skills, and then prioritizing those skills for the Individualized Education Program (IEP).

Listing Current and Future Environments

Based on interviews with the student, family, and team, an ecological inventory first identifies all current and future environments where the student must or wants to function. This includes specific school settings like classrooms, cafeterias, and hallways, as well as community locations like stores, restaurants, and medical services. For older students, the focus expands to future post-school environments for potential living, learning, working, and leisure.

Identifying Relevant Sub Environments

 Sub environments are areas, rooms, or departments within an environment where different activities take place.

Listing Priority Activities

 For each sub-environment, the team lists the priority activities or functions that take place there

Identifying Priority Skills

Each activity is task-analyzed to identify the specific priority skills required across domains like communication, motor, social, and self-help 

Prioritizing among Activities and Skills for the IEP

Since the inventory generates more objectives than can be taught, the team must collaboratively prioritize them. They use a rating system for variables like student preference, safety, frequency, and age-appropriateness to numerically rank skills for IEP development.

2. Discrepancy Analysis

Once objectives are defined, the next step is to measure what the student can and cannot do in the natural setting. This is called a discrepancy analysis. 

The teacher conducts a task analysis (breaking an activity into small measurable steps), observes the student’s performance, records errors, and identifies why a step is missed, whether due to learning, physical, health, sensory, communication, or motivational challenges. This process ensures that teaching targets are clear, evidence-based, and individualized.

Performing a Task Analysis

In the first step, the activity needs to be broken down into small measurable steps, also referred to as a task analysis.

The steps are initially written as a nondisabled peer or person would perform the steps in the targeted activity or task.

Observing and Scoring Performance

Once the steps of a task are defined, the student's performance is observed in a natural setting, if possible. The teacher provides a general direction and then scores each step, noting if it was done independently ("I"), with a verbal prompt ("V"), or a physical prompt ("P"). 

 

To distinguish a knowledge gap from a physical limitation, the teacher uses a hierarchy of support: first observing for independence, then giving a verbal explanation, and finally providing physical assistance to assess motor capability. 

 

Crucially, after physical guidance, the student is asked to try independently to confirm their ability, as being passively moved does not equate to being able to perform the motor action alone. For safety, certain steps (like medical procedures) may be partially simulated.

3. Providing Instruction, Adaptations, or Alternate Performance Strategies

The final step is to decide how to address the skills that the student struggles with. The instructional team must choose whether to:

• Teach the skill as a nondisabled peer would perform it,

• Provide adaptations (e.g., adaptive devices, altered environments, or modified rules), or

• Develop alternative performance strategies (e.g., using computers instead of handwriting, augmentative communication devices instead of speech).

Adaptations must be individualized, systematically taught, and regularly evaluated. If necessary, partial participation is encouraged to maximize independence while minimizing unnecessary reliance on others.

 STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS

A LEARNING RESOURCE for TEACHERS

The Nature and Degree of Visual Impairment

Visual impairment refers to a significant loss of vision in both eyes that cannot be corrected with glasses, including both low vision and blindness. Students with low vision or blindness require individual adjustments to learn most effectively. 

Visual impairments are also classified as congenital (vision loss which is present at birth) or adventitious (vision loss later in life as a result of illness or accident).It is important to recognize that although two children with visual impairment may be assessed as having the same visual acuity, they may each learn and function in very different ways.

Educational Implications of Vision Loss

Having a loss of vision often requires students to do things in different ways and sometimes learning opportunities are fewer. Development of concepts and skills may take more time. Those areas which are particularly affected in the life of a student with loss of

vision are:

• Concept development;

• Interpersonal communication skills;

• Life skills;

• Orientation and mobility skills; and,

• Academic development.

Development of concepts is the basis for all learning. Promoting development of a positive self-image, appropriate dress, well-developed self-care skills, good interpersonal communication, knowledge of family life and appropriate behaviours, increased independence, and productive community living can all be tremendously beneficial in the healthy growth of students with visual impairments.

 As with all students, relationships are very important for students with vision loss and your classroom can be a wonderful place for all levels of development and responsible maturity to flourish. 

Needs of Students With Visual Impairments

• To be challenged to take risks and grow.

• To become aware of personal strengths, talents, learning styles, and interests.

• To have opportunities for experiential and incidental learning such as first hand experience in labs, music, drama, field trips, group and paired projects, team projects, and sports.

• To be included in discussions and asked questions: to be full participants in the classroom.

• To have opportunities to develop goals, dreams and aspirations.

• To feel safe and comfortable throughout the school. To have appropriate orientation to the school, to be able to move independently and be assisted when needed.

• To have optimum lighting situations, which will reduce visual fatigue when reading and writing and facilitate safe travel within the school.

• To work with people who understand the educational implications of vision loss.

• To have appropriate learning resources and technology made available.

Students With Visual Impairments - Expectations

• To assume the same rights and responsibilities as other students.

• To observe the same rules of behaviour and discipline as other students.

• To communicate effectively with others, using good interpersonal skills. Develop listening, speaking, reading and writing skills for all occasions.

• To become independent, resourceful, and adaptable.

• To take reasonable risks.

• To show positive self-image by good posture, smiling, and caring for self (hygiene, appearance, clothing).

• To use and develop any residual vision.

• To learn the specialized skills and uses of technology that will allow for success at school and in adult life.

• To plan early for a meaningful career: Explore the range and possibility of occupations, make focused, and realistic educational plans and decisions to achieve those goals, and engage in work experience.

• To develop self-advocacy skills.

Orientation and Mobility

"Orientation and mobility" (O & M) has frequently been described as "knowing

where you are, knowing where you want to go, and knowing how to get there."

Teaching orientation and mobility requires specially trained people who are aware of the dangers, responsibilities, and techniques involved. This is not your responsibility, although you will probably want to meet occasionally with the O & M specialist to reinforce these skills within your classroom. Teachers may worry that they cannot move desks or change the classroom around, but one of the benefits of O & M is that students with a vision loss learn to manage routine changes, to adapt to the school's natural ebb and flow, and to be more attentive to their environment wherever they are.

The more severe the visual impairment, the more O & M instruction will be needed.The range of techniques vary greatly and the orientation and mobility specialist will determine how best to teach the student.

Safety and Environment

It is important to include students who are blind or have low vision in all aspects of school life, such as assemblies, field trips, work experiences, and special events.

Students with visual impairments face additional challenges when adjusting to the school’s physical environment. Everyday activities, from attending gym class to using the washroom, may present difficulties.

Safety and Environment 

• Emergency procedures, fire drills

• Class changes

• Library

• Bathrooms and change rooms

• "Comfort" places in the school

• Office, phone

• Specialty areas:

• Gym

• Science labs

• Industrial labs, shops

• Art and home economic rooms

• Cafeteria and lunch room

• Playground, outdoor areas

• Bus stops

----Teaching Tips----

Planning

• An individual education plan (IEP) is normally developed on an annual basis bythe student's educational team and is reviewed regularly.
• Handouts and reading assignments: For students who need their material Brailled, enlarged or taped, it may be important to furnish the vision resource teacher or Braillist with a copy several days in advance.
• Texts and novels: Students may need books enlarged, taped or Brailled. They are available with ordering approximately one month in advance.
• Buddy system: Copying from the board, reading small print and collaborating in labs are examples of ways buddies can be very useful. 

Instruction

• Talk while you teach: Students with visual impairments miss most visual cues and many written instructions. Consider talking through classroom activities, for example, describing non-verbal messages and responses, introducing beginnings, transitions, closures to all activities, announcing assignments, and naming speakers.

• Real-life examples and concrete material can assist in establishing relationships between abstract learning and the child's experience. Consider the use of "hands- on" material where possible, to provide opportunities for kinesthetic and tactile learning.

• Individual explanation: You may find the student with a visual impairment needs a little additional explanation. When the class begins a task it may be useful to check with the student to ensure comprehension.

• "Tell me what you see." To check whether or not the student can see specific visual material it is advisable not to say "Can you see...?" The student may pretend to see or assume that they do.

• "How does this relate to what you know?" You may need to assist the student to organize thoughts and make connections between learning experiences.

Visual Impairment Strategies: Moving From Object Activities to Contracted Braille

Assessment

More Time? Fewer Questions? 

A vision loss results in students taking longer to complete assignments than their classmates. To demonstrate their grasp of the topic they may need longer working time or less written work on tests. You may wish to consider verbal tests or the use of a reader or a scribe in some circumstances.

The Print User

• More time is needed for assigned reading. A tape of the material, particularly for long passages in literature, can be helpful.
• Study Skills: Thorough outlines, point form and identification of key concepts can help avoid fatigue and frustration.
• Skip the non-essentials to free up more time for assignments, writing and projects.
• Tell your student if some of highly detailed portions of the text can be skipped while retaining the essential details taught elsewhere.
• Correct spelling, grammar and vocabulary development can be expected and should be checked regularly, as with all students.
• While legible handwriting is an important skill to be encouraged, computers are recommended for most students.

The Braille User

• Teaching basic literacy is the work of the specialist teacher. Classroom teachers are not expected to know Braille.

• Rate and order of literacy development: Skills are developed in a different order and at a different rate for Braille users.

• Taped books and readers are an alternate form of reading which may be appropriate in some situations.

• Quality over quantity for written work as Braille users will complete their writing assignments in class using a Braillewriter.

Aids Your Student May Need

There are many aids available which greatly assist students with visual impairment to access the curriculum and to pursue personal and career goals:

• Paper: Bold-lined paper with darkened lines and enlarged spaces for students who have difficulty with regular paper.

• Books: Large print or Brailled texts may be available; the vision resource teacher can provide a current list. "Talking book" versions of many texts and novels have been professionally taped and should be provided whenever possible.

• Equipment: Tilt-top desks and book stands bring work closer to the eyes for optimum reading angles and lighting. Optical enhancers are materials that enhance print size, contrast, and spacing of text. Braillers (Braillewriters) are machines for writing Braille and may be used by the student or the assistant for reading and writing activities.

• Technology:  Braille 'n' Speak is an electronic note taker which allows the student to enter material and receive auditory feedback/playback. Can be interfaced with a Braille printer.

• Computers: Software is available for those students who require enlarged print, speech output or Braille.