Language Development & Literacy 

                                                        – Building Foundations on Early Age

Children’s language and literacy development is a complicated process influenced by their biology and environment. Most follow a typical progression through a series of developmental milestones. However, the age at which they reach these stages varies from child to child depending on gender, language experience, socioeconomic status and to a lesser degree, birth order (Baker & Wigfi eld, 1999; Burchinal, Peisner-Feinbreg, Pianta, & Howes, 2002; Nicoladis & Genesee, 1997). 

Babbling and Early Words (12-18 Months)

The babbling stage, often misunderstood as meaningless noise, actually marks a critical point in early speech development. During this phase, infants begin to produce vowel-consonant combinations such as "ma," "da," and "um." These sounds lay the foundation for more advanced language use.

By 12 to 18 months, children typically enter the second stage of speech development. At this point, they begin to form recognizable words like "mama" and "dada." This period is especially rewarding for parents, as it represents a clear shift from sounds to intentional communication.

Speech development is largely driven by listening and imitation. Infants first process familiar and unfamiliar sounds before attempting to reproduce them. As they begin to associate sounds with people and objects, they demonstrate an emerging understanding of language and meaning.

Daily exposure to varied environments, such as local parks or gardens, can enhance language development. These settings provide rich auditory experiences, encouraging toddlers to mimic new sounds and expanding their vocabulary through real-world interaction.

The transition from babbling to purposeful speech during the 12–18 month stage is a major developmental milestone. It signifies that the child is beginning to use language meaningfully, setting the stage for more complex communication in the future—and certainly deserving of celebration.

Preschoolers Word Sentences (18-36 Months)

During these formative years, children make significant leaps in both language structure and early literacy skills. Their speech becomes more grammatically complex as they naturally apply rules for plurals ("cats") and past tense ("walked"). While they often overgeneralize these patterns ("goed" instead of "went"), this actually demonstrates their growing understanding of language systems - these errors typically resolve on their own without correction.

Simultaneously, preschoolers begin developing foundational literacy abilities. Through shared reading experiences, they learn book-handling skills, left-to-right tracking, and how to connect pictures with meaning. Early instruction in letter recognition and sound awareness (like identifying the first sound in words) gives children a strong advantage in later reading success.

The most effective learning happens through a combination of:

• Playful language exploration

• Interactive reading activities

• Guided but natural exposure to letters and sounds

  
  

  Expanding Vocabulary and Simple Sentences (3-4 Years)

  
  

  By the age of 36 months, children enter a critical phase of language development marked by expanding vocabulary and improved sentence structure. This period builds on earlier milestones, combining smaller language skills into more complex communication abilities. At this stage, children typically begin forming simple sentences containing three or more words, allowing for clearer and more detailed expression.

  Between ages three and four, language growth becomes closely tied to cognitive development. Children’s natural curiosity drives them to ask frequent questions such as “why,” “what,” “when,” and “where,” reflecting their desire to understand and interact with the world around them. These early questions are essential for both intellectual and linguistic development.

  As children become more proficient in sentence construction, their communication becomes increasingly sophisticated. They begin to convey their thoughts, feelings, and ideas with greater ease, reducing their reliance on gestures or nonverbal cues. This advancement enhances parent-child communication and marks a significant leap in the child’s overall language competence.

  The rapid vocabulary expansion seen during this stage is a clear indicator of growing communication skills. Children begin to engage in more meaningful conversations, showing readiness for more advanced language use. This development paves the way for ongoing linguistic growth in the preschool years and beyond, laying a strong foundation for future academic and social success.

  
  

The year between the ages of 3 and 4 is an exciting one! Your child’s ability to communicate takes a giant leap during this year. By the age of 4, your child’s grasp on language allows him to express his needs and feelings clearly... which means that there may be less frustration and fewer tantrums caused by communication breakdowns.

Full Sentence Usage and Complex Language (4-5 Years)

 By age four, many children begin participating in structured activities, and by five or six, most are enrolled in kindergarten or first grade. During these later preschool years, children's vocabulary grows rapidly, often expanding by hundreds of words each year. As their vocabulary increases, so does their ability to use more sophisticated language structures.

Older preschoolers start to use grammar more effectively. They form questions, express negatives, and create compound sentences. They also begin to understand and apply relational contrasts such as "big-little" or "heavy-light" in everyday speech. By around age five, many children can comprehend and produce passive sentence structures, showing a deeper understanding of syntax.

Phonological awareness becomes a key focus at this stage. Children demonstrate this skill by clapping out syllables, recognizing rhymes, and identifying words that do not belong in a group based on sound. They also begin to break words into individual sounds, a foundational skill for learning to read and write.

In addition to oral language skills, preschoolers develop an awareness of written language and print conventions. Four-year-olds start to understand that sentences are made up of words, words are made of letters, and that letters have a specific orientation on the page. By age five, many children can navigate picture books independently and construct simple narratives based on images, even if they cannot yet distinguish real words from random letter strings.

This stage of development marks a crucial period for building the language and literacy foundation necessary for academic success in the early school years.

 Semantic and Pragmatic Influence on Syntactic Development

Language development is a complex, interconnected process where growth in one area impacts others. While the next chapter focuses on syntax (sentence structure) in preschoolers, it’s important to recognize that syntax doesn’t develop in isolation—it’s deeply influenced by semantics (meaning) and pragmatics (social use of language). Let’s explore how these aspects interact.

The Role of Semantics in Syntax Development

Semantic and syntactic development are closely linked, with grammar growing alongside vocabulary rather than just with age. A key challenge for children is understanding how different roles in an event (like who-does-what-to-whom) are expressed in sentences. For example, in "Mommy eat cookie," the order helps a child grasp that Mommy is the doer and cookie is the object. However, syntactic roles (noun-verb-noun) are more abstract because English doesn’t always mark nouns differently based on their function. Research shows strong connections between vocabulary and syntax growth in early childhood, suggesting a shared cognitive mechanism that may even have genetic roots.

How Pragmatics Shapes Syntax

Pragmatics—how language is used in communication—also plays a crucial role in syntax development. For instance, articles (*a* vs. the) help listeners distinguish new from old information, while verb tenses clarify when an action happened. Preschoolers rely on shared experiences and speaker intent to interpret sentence structures. Pronouns are a great example of pragmatics in action: new information is first introduced with a noun ("the dog"), and once established, pronouns ("it") maintain cohesion. This shows how social and contextual cues guide children in mastering grammatical rules.

Support young children’s language by:

• Using clear, meaningful sentences in conversation.

• Encouraging storytelling and shared reading.

Focusing on both what children say and why they say it.

Language Development Differences and Delays

Approximately 10-15% of children experience late language emergence (LLE), meaning they begin speaking later than their peers. While about half of these late talkers eventually catch up developmentally, others may have persistent language impairments (LI) that require professional support. It's important to note that not all language variations indicate delays - many simply reflect normal differences like bilingualism or dialectal variations.

Bilingualism and Language Development

Children acquiring two languages face unique circumstances that influence their development. Key factors include their linguistic environment, community support for each language, similarities between the languages, individual learning differences, and maternal influences like education level and language proficiency. While bilingual children must navigate two linguistic systems (and often two cultures), they typically develop both languages at a pace comparable to monolingual peers. Interestingly, the degree of difference between the two languages doesn't significantly impact acquisition speed.

Even minimal exposure to multiple languages provides cognitive benefits, enhancing early communication skills for all children - including those who ultimately become monolingual. Bilingual children develop separate vocabularies for each language from the beginning. While many achieve proficiency in both languages during preschool years, they often shift dominance to the majority language (typically the school language) as they grow older. Research shows that with about 5-6 years of consistent exposure, most bilingual children perform academically on par with their monolingual classmates, though individual variation exists.

Simultaneous Language Acquisition in Young Children

Children exposed to two languages from an early age—known as simultaneous bilinguals—often amaze researchers and parents alike. Despite managing double the language input, these children typically acquire both languages at a pace similar to monolingual peers.

Even minimal exposure to multiple languages can boost a child’s overall communication skills, including for children who mostly speak one language. From infancy, bilingual children begin building two distinct vocabularies, learning to differentiate and store sounds, words, and grammar rules from both languages.

However, as they enter school, many children naturally shift dominance to the majority language—usually the one used in their educational setting. Research shows that after about 5½ years of English exposure, bilingual children typically perform at the same academic level as monolingual English speakers. Still, every child’s journey is unique, and progress varies widely.

Language Development Delays

Several factors seem to predict later speech and language impairments among preschool children. In general, these include:

• male gender,

• persistent health issues or being medically fragile,

• ongoing hearing problems, and

• a more reactive temperament, such as consistently responding negatively to frustration with tantrums or overreactions

Language development isn’t just shaped by biology—it’s deeply influenced by a child’s environment, especially their socioeconomic status (SES). SES typically includes family income, parental education, and occupation. Each of these elements can directly impact the quality and quantity of language a child hears at home.

Parents with higher levels of education, regardless of culture or ethnicity, tend to engage more in conversation, use a richer vocabulary, and speak in more complex sentences with their children. In contrast, families experiencing financial stress, material hardship, or homelessness often face greater challenges that limit verbal interaction—through no fault of their own.

Research reveals that language gaps emerge early. By just 18 months, children from lower-SES backgrounds often begin to lag in vocabulary and language processing. By 24 months, the gap can widen to a 6-month delay, making it harder for them to catch up later in school.

Even within low-SES groups, homelessness can present additional barriers. Studies suggest that mothers experiencing homelessness may use even fewer language-rich interactions with their children than housed, low-income parents.

Touch Math

—A Multisensory Approach to Learning Numbers

Introduction to the Topic

Touch Math is a revolutionary multisensory teaching method designed to help students, especially those with learning differences like dyscalculia or ADHD, understand and master basic math concepts. By using touch points on numerals, learners associate physical cues with numbers, making abstract math concepts more concrete.

TouchMath bridges the gap between concrete experiences and abstract concepts, reinforces number values, eliminates guessing, dramatically reduces student errors, and aids in memorization. But perhaps more important than all of those facts — is that by making math fun and accessible, TouchMath gives students confi dence and inspires them to reach their academic potential. 

Touch Math Counting

Each TouchMath numeral has a corresponding number of TouchPoints placed upon the numeral. Th is TouchPoint placement has been carefully researched. It is important to use the same pattern consistently. 

•   Each numeral from 1 through 9 has TouchPoints corresponding to the digit’s value. 
•   Numerals 1 through 5 have single TouchPoints that are touched and counted once. 
•   Numerals 6 through 9 have double TouchPoints that are touched and counted twice. 

Addition  

Steps:

1.  Teach the Beginning Addition Statement: "I touch and count all the TouchPoints  on the numbers."
2. Touch the TouchPoints with a pencil point and count aloud in the correct order.
3. For Example A, begin counting with the top number in the column, 5: “1, 2, 3, 4, 5.”
4. Continue counting on the 4: “6, 7, 8, 9.”
5. Record the answer: 9.
6. Reinforce the facts by repeating the problem and the answer aloud.
7. For a longer column of numbers, Example B, repeat the first four steps and continue counting on all of the numbers. Then write the answer.
8. Follow the same process for Examples C and D for problems in a horizontal format.

Subtraction 

Students will need to count backward from 18 and every number below 18. Practice counting backward from any number and stopping at any number. For example, when counting backward from 6, stop at 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0. When teaching backward counting from the numbers 6 to 18, practice with one number in each lesson until students are proficient with counting backward from that number then continue to the next number.

Look at the examples. You can subtract any number from 9; so in the problem 49 – 29, subtract 9 from 9 and get 0. 4 – 2 = 2. However, when the problem is changed to 48 – 29, regrouping, or borrowing, must occur. The 4 tens become 3, 8 becomes 18, and 9 is subtracted from 18, which is the largest number from which we ever count backward for subtraction.

Multiplication

Skip (or sequence) counting is a critical skill for multiplication, division and higher mathematical development. Students will need auditory stimulation, visual patterning cues and tactile reinforcement to help master this skill. Mastery of skip counting will lead to an understanding of fractions and build a framework for basic algebra.

Skip Counting:

Multiplication Steps:

1. Teach the Beginning Multiplication Statement: "I skip count by one number while touching the TouchPoints on the other number.
2. For Example A, skip count by 2s while touching the TouchPoints on the 6: “2–4, 6–8, 10–12.”
3. Record the answer: 12.
4. Reinforce facts by repeating the problem and answer aloud.

Division

Steps: 

1. Teach the Division Statement: "I skip count by the divisor and get as close to the dividend as possible without going over the dividend.
2. For Example A, skip count by 2s: “2, 4, 6, 8.”
3. As each number is counted, make a tally mark in the box above the division problem.
4. Count the tally marks.

Touch Math 3's Multiplication & Division

Advanced Concepts- Money Counting

Tips for Using Touch Math

Fun activities:

1. Touch Point Flash Cards

Use flash cards with numbers 1–9 showing the correct Touch Math dots. Ask students to tap and count the touch points aloud. For advanced practice, flip the cards quickly and have students say the number or answer a math fact using the dots.

2. Touch & Toss Game

Write math facts (e.g., 4 + 3) on beanbags or ping pong balls. Have students toss the item into a basket, then use Touch Math to solve the problem before earning a point. 

3. Build-a-Number with Playdough

Give students laminated number mats with touch points shown. Let them use playdough to create the dots as they count each one. This strengthens fine motor skills while reinforcing Touch Math structure.

4. Touch Point Race

Place Touch Math cards face down in a pile. In pairs or teams, students race to flip a card, count the dots using the touch method, and solve a math problem (e.g., 5 + 2). First correct answer wins the round!

5. Touch Math Hopscotch

Draw numbers on the ground with chalk and include touch points. As students hop through each square, they say the number and count the touch dots aloud. Add simple equations for older learners.

Summary

Touch Math is a multisensory, hands-on approach to teaching basic math concepts, designed especially for young learners and students who struggle with traditional methods. The core idea involves placing visual "touch points" on numbers, which students count by touching to perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

This approach supports all learning styles—visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic—making math more concrete and accessible. It builds number sense, improves accuracy, and reinforces one-to-one correspondence. Touch Math is widely used in early education and special education settings, particularly for students with learning disabilities, ADHD, or dyscalculia.

Orton-Gillingham

Introduction 

The Orton-Gillingham approach is named after Dr. Samuel Orton, a pioneering neuropsychiatrist, and Anna Gillingham, an educator and psychologist. Over a century ago, Dr. Orton began researching language processing disorders in children and became determined to help those struggling with literacy. Collaborating with Gillingham, they developed what is now known as the Orton-Gillingham (OG) approach—a groundbreaking advancement in literacy instruction.

The OG approach is a structured literacy method designed for students with dyslexia, auditory processing issues, speech difficulties, and other learning differences. It is an evidence-based reading intervention intended for one-on-one or small group instruction. This approach is direct, explicit, multisensory, sequential, diagnostic, and prescriptive—making it especially effective for those who find reading, writing, and spelling challenging. It is best understood not as a rigid program, but as a flexible, powerful teaching approach in the hands of a well-trained educator.

7 Strategies of Orton-Gillingham

1. Multisensory Learning

Multisensory learning is the cornerstone of the Orton-Gillingham approach, ensuring that students with dyslexia and other reading challenges engage multiple senses (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile) to reinforce literacy skills. This method helps create stronger neural pathways for reading and spelling by activating different areas of the brain simultaneously.

2. Explicit, Systematic Phonics Instruction

Explicit instruction means teaching skills directly and intentionally, rather than assuming students will learn patterns on their own. Educators clearly teach letter-sound relationships, model decoding strategies, and provide intentional practice with controlled texts. They also address misconceptions in real time. This approach removes ambiguity and ensures that every student—even those with language-based learning difficulties—has a fair opportunity to succeed in reading.

Systematic phonics provides students with structured and organized literacy instruction that focuses on the relationship between graphemes (letters) with phonemes (sounds) in the English language. Over time, students master simple letter patterns and words to comprehend more complicated concepts over time.

3. Structured & Sequential 

Structured and sequential instruction refers to the deliberate organization of lessons to ensure students are guided through content in a logical, cumulative manner. This approach is a cornerstone of the Orton-Gillingham method and supports learning by making sure students have the necessary background knowledge and prerequisite skills before introducing new material.

A key element in structured instruction is the use of a scope and sequence, which outlines both the range of skills to be taught and the order in which they are presented. This planning tool helps educators maintain clarity in pacing and content delivery, allowing new concepts to build naturally on existing knowledge. In literacy, this often involves reinforcing the connection between reading and spelling.

4. Cumulative Review

Cumulative review ensuring that new lessons continuously reinforce and build upon previously mastered skills. This method prevents learning gaps, strengthens retention, and helps students make meaningful connections between concepts.

How to review:

Part 1: Gather the Data (Identifying Errors & Review Needs)

1. Observed Error Patterns

   • Track consistent mistakes in reading, spelling, or sound production (e.g., confusing ou vs. oa).

   • Note if errors occur in isolation or across contexts.

2. Recent/Unexpected Errors

   • Address mistakes from the latest lesson or spontaneous errors (excluding teacher-introduced errors).

3. Near-Mastery Material

   • Reinforce recently taught concepts that need more practice (e.g., a student may need 3+ lessons to master a phonogram).

4. Major Concepts

   • Continuously review foundational skills (e.g., syllable types, spelling rules) in every lesson.

Part 2: Planning & Implementing Review (Structured Reinforcement)

1. Drills (Card & Blending)

   • Mix old and new phonograms in card drills.

   • Use error correction (e.g., tracing) for persistent mistakes.

2. Warm-Up/Extension Activities

   • Start lessons with a quick review of major concepts (e.g., "What’s a closed syllable?").

   • For deep confusion, use targeted activities (e.g., contrast drills, vowel-intensive practice, games).

3. Reading Words/Sentences

   • Embed review words with varied syllable types and recent errors into reading practice.

4. Linking Review to New Concepts

   • Connect prior knowledge to new material (e.g., review -ing before teaching *-ed*).

5. Writing Review

   • Dictation: Include short/long vowels, recent phonograms, and error-prone spellings.

   • Morphology: Revisit affixes (prefixes/suffixes) and problem words.

     
     

     5. Language-Based Instruction

     
     

     Focuses on the structure of the English language：

     Teachers should create consistent, effective routines that help students manage their experience in the physical classroom. When teachers create routines to support the organization of their space, students can reallocate their mental energy to focus on the academic and language tasks at hand. To support this, teachers should consider the following environmental strategies:

     • Record and reference key information on the board: Post a daily schedule, class-specific agendas, the day of the week, the date, and nightly homework assignments. Build in time for students to record their homework at the beginning or end of class to reinforce executive function habits.
     • Post and use visible calendars: Weekly, monthly, or year-long calendars that are large and easily read can help students understand the passage of time and plan for upcoming events. For example, for older students, they can see how many days they might have for an assignment, which can be beneficial for long-term planning.
     • Post and reference relevant anchor charts and visuals: Use visual supports like sound walls, character maps, writing process steps, grammar rules, templates, word walls, story timelines, and geographical maps. These should be visible, relevant, and frequently discussed and referenced.
     • Post and use classroom expectations: Display classroom norms, expected behaviors, and policies (e.g., technology use). When students need redirection, having these norms visible provides a neutral, consistent reference point.
     • Provide and reference organization examples: Post pictures that illustrate examples of desk, locker, and materials bin organization. Include expectations for shared spaces and digital organization, such as file naming conventions or folder structure. These models support students’ ability to manage their materials independently.
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     

     
     

     6. Decoding & Encoding Integration

     
     

     While decoding and encoding are opposites, they are also skills that are intertwined. Both decoding and encoding require students to have a strong phonetic awareness (the ability to hear, break apart, and put together oral sounds), phonics awareness (the rules of the language), and orthographic awareness (the spelling of a language). As a teacher, you often see students who have stronger decoding skills or stronger encoding skills, but overall, students develop this skills at a relatively equal pace.

     When we teach our students using a structured literacy approach, we focus on developing decoding and encoding skills at the same time. For example, students practice reading short vowel words AND writing short vowel words within the same literacy lesson. Focusing on both decoding and encoding will help your students become strong readers and writers.

     
     

Use decodable texts that only use sounds and spelling patterns that have been explicitly taught. This will foster strong decoding skills. It also will help students focus on the text to decode as opposed to trying to guess since the text uses sounds they have learned. 

7. Individualized

Because everyone learns differently, the Orton-Gillingham approach is always concerned with the needs of the individual. Anna Gillingham once said, “Go as fast as you can, but as slow as you must.” Curriculum that follows this approach makes it easy for you to teach to your child’s individual strengths while at the same time respecting the child’s pace. Consequently, this approach works for all ages—beginning readers, intermediate students, teens, and adults.

Tips for Orton-Gillingham

1. Use of modeling and visuals.

Using modeling and matching it with appropriate visuals allows our students to have conversations about their work. This provides a bridge from oral language to written language.  

2. Pose questions that open discussion around content area vocabulary.

Structure your conversations by asking questions that will lead to vibrant discussions. Bringing words to life will help students develop better usage and understanding of content area vocabulary.  

3. Work with different sentence types. 

Expand on sentences either orally or in written form. For example, with a decodable sentence like, “Tim ran up the hill.” you can ask a student to expand orally with, “because…”

4. Embed grammar into controlled text. 

Ask students to identify or color-code. Look at certain suffixes and discuss how they dictate the part of speech. 

5. Monitor and clarify understanding.

Take time to discuss the different meanings expressions can have. There are going to be passages or phrases in stories that will need clarification. You can preview a book ahead of time and pull out the sections or phrases that you foresee your student struggling with. 

10 Must Haves for Orton-Gillingham Intervention

Pencil Case with Fun Markers, Highlighters, Stamps, Pencils

Allow students to pick their favorite color which allows for immediate engagement and buy-in. Sometimes, it's the little things!

Sound Drill Cards 

Graphic Organizers

Students can look at a graphic organizer to see a visual representation of the thought process they need to use to answer a comprehension question or the framework they have learned to define their vocabulary words. This helps them keep everything organized. 

summary 

 The Orton-Gillingham Approach always is focused upon the learning needs of the individual student. Orton-Gillingham (OG) practitioners design lessons and materials to work with students at the level they present by pacing instruction and the introduction of new materials to their individual strengths and weaknesses. Students with dyslexia need to master the same basic knowledge about language and its relationship to our writing system as any who seek to become competent readers and writers. However, because of their dyslexia, they need more help than most people in sorting, recognizing, and organizing the raw materials of language for thinking and use. Language elements that non-dyslexic learners acquire easily must be taught directly and systematically.